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coral reefs

Training
See also: fringing reef, coral atoll, structure and distribution of coral reefs
Most Coral reefs have been formed after the last glacial period when ice melt caused sea level rise and flooding on the continental shelves. This means that most coral reefs are less than 10,000 years. As communities of coral reefs have been established on the shelves, they built the reefs that grew up, the pace of rising sea levels. Reefs that has not kept pace may drowned reefs become covered with water as there was insufficient light for the survival of others.
Coral reefs are also in the deep sea far from continental shelves and around oceanic islands such as atolls. The vast majority of these islands of the Ocean Reef are of volcanic origin. The few exceptions are of tectonic origin, where plate movement lifted the ocean bottom to the surface.
In 1842, Charles Darwin published his first monograph, structure and distribution of coral reefs. There, he outlined his theory of the formation of coral atolls, he conceived an idea during the voyage of the Beagle. His theory was that the atolls were formed by uplift and subsidence the crust under the oceans. Darwin's theory describes a sequence of three stages of the formation of atolls. It begins with a fringe reef forming around a volcanic island off the island and subsidies to the ocean floor. As subsidence continues, the fringing reef becomes a barrier reef, and, finally, a reef atoll.
Darwin's theory begins with a volcanic island off
As the island and disappear the ocean floor, coral growth built a fringing reef, often including a shallow lagoon between the land and the main reef
As subsidence continuous fringing reef becomes a barrier reef further from the shore with a lagoon more inside
Eventually the wells of the island under the sea and the reef is an atoll surrounding a lagoon open
A fringing reef can take ten thousand years to form, and can take up to an atoll 30 million years
A small atoll in the Maldives.
Darwin predicted that in each lagoon would be a basis of bedrock, the remains of the original volcano. drilling that followed proved this correct. Darwin's theory followed from his understanding that the coral polyps grow in the clean seas of the tropics, where the water is agitated, but can live only in a limited water depth, from just below the low tide. When the level of the underlying land remains the same, the corals develop around the coast to form what he called fringing reefs, and may eventually develop from the bank to become a barrier reef. When the field is increasing, fringing reefs may develop around the coast, but raised reefs above sea level dies and becomes white limestone. The disappearance of the earth slowly, the fringes of coral growth to keep pace with the top on a base of dead coral, forming a barrier coral surrounding a lagoon between the reef and the shore. A coral reef can encircle an island, and once the well of the island below sea level of roughly circular atoll of coral growth continues to monitor the level of the sea, forming a central lagoon. barrier reefs and atolls are generally not form complete circles, but are broken in places by the storms. If the earth disappear too quickly or rising sea levels too quickly, the coral dies because it is below the depth of living.
In general, the two major variables determining the geomorphology, or form, coral Coral is the nature of the underlying substrate on which they rest, and the history of changes in sea level relative to the substrate.
As an example of how coral reefs are formed on continental shelves, the structure of current living reefs of the Great Barrier Reef began grow about 20,000 years. The sea level was then 120 meters (390 feet) lower than it is today. As sea level rose, water corals and encroached on what had been the hills of the coastal plain. 13,000 years, the sea level was 60 meters (200 ft.) below the current level, and the hills of the coastal plain were, by then, the continental islands. As level rise Sea has continued most of continental islands were submerged. The corals could then invade the hills, forming the islands and reefs present. The level of the sea on the Great Barrier Reef has not changed significantly in the last 6000 years, and age of this structure of reef life is estimated at between 6,000 and 8,000 years. Although the Great Barrier Reef formed along a continental shelf, and not around a volcanic island, the same principles apply as described by Darwin's theory above. The Great Barrier Reef development was stopped at the stage of the reef, since Australia is not about to plunge. He formed the world's largest barrier reef, 3001000 meters (330-1100 feet) from shore, and 2,000 kilometers (1,200 miles) long.
Healthy coral reefs grow horizontally from 1 to 3 cm (0.39 to 1.2) per year, and the vertical growth of 1-25 cm (in 0412) per year, but they are limited to growth above a depth of 150 meters (490 ft) because of their need for sunlight, and can not grow above sea level.
Types
The three main types of reefs are
Reef fringing reef that is directly connected to a shore or borders with a shallow channel or lagoon.
reef barrier reef separated mainland or island shore by a lagoon.
Atoll Reef coral reef more or less circular or continuous stretches around a lagoon without islet Central.
Other types of coral or variants are:
an isolated reef, reef outcrop relatively small, typically in a lagoon or Bay, usually circular and surrounded by sand or seaweed. reefs are frequent.
Apron reef looks like a small reef fringing reef, but most inclined to extend downward and a point or edge of the peninsula.
Reef Bank linear or semi-circular shaped footprint, larger than a reef.
Ribbon reef a long, narrow, slightly twisted reefs, usually associated with an atoll lagoon.
Table coral an isolated reef, approaching an atoll type, but without a lagoon.
Inhabited Cay in the Maldives
microatolls certain species of coral communities form called microatolls. The vertical growth of microatolls is limited by average tidal height. By analyzing the different growth morphologies, microatolls can be used as a hard low-resolution models of sea level change. microatolls fossils can be dated by carbon radioactive dating. These methods have been used to reconstruct the sea level of the Holocene.
Cays small, low-lying islands sand formed on the surface of a coral reef. Material eroded from lots of coral on the reef or parts of the lagoon, forming a zone altitude. Plants can stabilize cays enough for them to be habitable by humans. Cays occur in tropical environments in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Ocean (Including the Caribbean and the Great Barrier Reef and Belize Barrier Reef), where they provide habitable land and agriculture for hundreds of thousands of people. Their ecosystems surrounding reefs also provide food and building materials for residents island.
When a coral reef can not follow the sinking of a volcanic island, a seamount or Guyot is formed. Seamounts and seamount are below the surface of the ocean and can accommodate many species, depending on their location and depth. Seamounts are rounded at the top and Seamounts are flat. The flat top of the Guyot, also called tablemount, is due to erosion by waves, winds and atmospheric phenomena.
Distribution
Locations of coral reefs.
Limits for the isotherms of C 20. Most corals live this limit. Rating cooler waters caused by rebound on the southwest coast of Africa and off the coast of Peru.
This map shows areas of upwelling in red. Coral reefs are not found in coastal areas where cooler nutrient-rich upwellings are
Coral reefs are estimated to cover 284,300 km ² (109,800 square miles), which is slightly less than one percent of the area occupied by the world's oceans. The Indo-Pacific (Including the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, South Asia and the Pacific) account for 91.9% of the total. Southeast Asia accounts for 32.3% of this figure, while the Pacific including Australia accounts for 40.8%. Atlantic and Caribbean coral reefs only account for 7.6%.
Although corals exist both in the water temperate and tropical reefs in shallow waters only form in an area extending from 30 N to 30 S of the equator. Tropical corals do not grow not at depths of more than 50 meters (160 ft). The optimum temperature for most of the coral reef is 2627 C, and some reefs exist in the waters below 18 C. However, reefs in the Persian Gulf have adapted to temperatures of 13 C in winter and 38 ° C in summer.
deepwater corals is even more exceptional because it can exist at greater depths and colder temperatures. Although deep water corals can form reefs, we know very little about them.
Coral reefs are rare along the U.S. west coast and along the West African coast. This is mainly due upwelling and strong cold coastal currents that reduce water temperature in these areas (respectively Peru, Benguela and Canary Islands during water). The corals are rarely found along the coasts of South Asia from the eastern end of India (Madras) to the Bangladesh border and Myanmar. They are rare along the coast around north-eastern South America and due to the release of freshwater from the Amazon in Bangladesh and Ganges Rivers respectively.
coral reefs and the main areas of the world's reefs
The Great Barrier Reef – the largest reef system reefs in the world, Queensland, Australia.
The Belize Barrier Reef – the second largest in the world, stretching from southern Quintana Roo, Mexico along the coast of Belize to the Bay Islands of Honduras.
The New Caledonia Barrier Reef – second longest double barrier reef in the world, with a length of about 1500 kilometers (930 miles).
The Andros, Bahamas Barrier – The third largest in the world, after the east coast Andros Island, Bahamas between Andros and Nassau.
Red Sea Coral Reef – located off the coast of Israel, Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Yemen.
Pulley Ridge – deepest photosynthetic coral reef, Florida.
Of Many reefs scattered over the Maldives.
Ghe Raja Ampat Islands in Indonesia's Western province of Papua has the highest diversity known sea.
Biology
Anatomy of a coral polyp.
See also: Coral
Living coral should be regarded as small live animals incorporated into the calcium carbonate. It is a mistake to think of coral as plants or rocks. Coral is made up of individual accumulation animals, polyps, arranged in various forms. The polyps are usually small, but they can vary in size from a pinhead a foot in diameter. The coral polyps grow with calcium carbonate other organizations filing the basis of coral, like a skeleton below and around them, pushing the "coral head" or upwards and outwards polyps. Waves, herbivorous fish (such as parrots) sea urchins, sponges, and other forces and organisms break down the coral skeletons into fragments that settle into spaces in the reef structure. Many other organisms living in the reef community contribute calcium carbonate skeleton in the same way. coralline algae are important contributors the structure of coral reef in parts subjected to greater forces by waves (such as the reef front facing the open ocean). The limestone deposit in the leaves of algae on the surface of coral, which strengthened.
Reef-building corals or hermatypic found only in the photic zone (more than 50 m deep), the depth to which sufficient sunlight penetrates the water for photosynthesis. coral polyps not photosynthesis, but they have a symbiotic relationship with unicellular organisms called zooxanthellae; these cells in the tissues of coral polyps carry photosynthesis and produce more organic nutrients that are then used by the coral polyps. Because of this relationship, coral reefs grow much faster in clear water, which admits more sunlight. Indeed, the relationship is responsible for coral reefs in the sense that without their symbionts, coral growth would be too slow for the corals to form structures impressive reef. Corals get up to 90% of their elements Nutritional their zooxanthellae symbionts.
Table coral
Focus on polyps arranged on a coral, waving their tentacles. There may be thousands of polyps on a single branch of coral.
Corals can reproduce sexually and asexually. An individual polyp may use both modes of reproduction in its life. The Corals reproduce sexually by either internal or external fertilization. The reproductive cells are on the mesentery membranes that radiate inward the layer of tissue that lines the stomach cavity. Some corals are hermaphroditic mature adults, others are exclusively male or female. Some even sex change as they grow.
The interior of the fertilized eggs develop in the polyp for a period of few days to several weeks. Subsequent development produces a tiny larva called planula. Externally fertilized eggs develop for synchronized spawning. eggs and sperm output polyps in water at the same time. The eggs are scattered over a vast territory. The spawning depends on four factors: the time of year water temperature, and tidal and lunar cycles. Spawning is most effective when he was little variation between the tides high and low. The less water movement, the greater the chances of fertilization. ideal time occurs in spring. Release of eggs or larvae usually occurs planula at night and sometimes in phase with the lunar cycle (36 days after the full moon). The period of release to settlement lasts only a few days, but some planulae can survive afloat for several weeks (7, 14). They are vulnerable to heavy predation and adverse environmental conditions. For lucky few who survive to attach to the substrate, the challenge comes from competition for food and space.
There are about a thousand species corals that build different forms such as wrinkled brains, cabbage, table tops, the deer woods strands of wire, and pillars.
Brain coral
Staghorn coral
Spiral wire coral
Pillar coral
Darwin's Paradox
Darwin's Paradox
Coral … seems to grow when the ocean waters hot, poor, and clearly agitated, a fact that Darwin had already noted in its passage through Tahiti in 1842.
This is a fundamental paradox, shown quantitatively by the seeming impossibility of reconciling the inputs and outputs of nutrients that control the metabolism of polyps corals.
Recent oceanographic research has highlighted the reality of this paradox by confirming that the oligotrophic ocean photic zone persists until the reef crest waves battered. When you approach the edges of reefs and atolls of the quasi-desert of the sea, the virtual absence of living matter is suddenly a multitude of life, without transition. So why is there something rather than nothing, and more specifically, where nutrients are necessary for the operation of this machine are amazing coral reefs? Francis Rougerie
During his voyage on the Beagle, Darwin described as tropical coral reefs in the desert oasis of the ocean. He reflected on the paradox of tropical coral reefs, which are among the richest ecosystems and most diverse on earth, flourish when they are surrounded and supported by the tropical ocean waters provide little nutrients. It has been a challenge for scientists to explain this paradox.
Coral reefs cover a less than one percent of the world's surface ocean, but they support more than one quarter of all marine species. This large number of species results in complex food webs with large predatory fish eat smaller fish that eat the zooplankton forage even smaller and so on. However, all food chains ultimately depend on plants, which are the primary producers. And primary productivity on a coral reef is very high, resulting in a typical biomass production of 5-10g C m2 day1.
tropical waters are often described as clear. Because they are deficient in nutrients and plankton to drift. The sun shines all year round in the tropics, warming of the surface layer of the oceans so it is less dense than the subsurface layers. The warming of the water is separated from the water fountain with a stable thermocline, where temperature can change quickly. This keeps the water warm surface floating above the cooler deeper waters. There is little exchange between these layers. Organisms that die in aquatic environments in general fall to the bottom where they decompose. This decomposition releases nutrients in the form nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. These nutrients, N, P and K are necessary for plant growth, but in the tropics, they are not directly recycled to the surface.
Plants are the base of the food chain, and the necessary light and nutrients, they are growing. In Ocean of these plants are mainly a type of plankton, microscopic phytoplankton that drift in the water column. They need sunlight for photosynthesis, which carbon sequestration powers, so they only found in surface waters. But they also needed nutrients. Phytoplankton rapid use of nutrients in surface waters in the tropics and these nutrients are generally not replaced because of the thermocline.
coral polyps
The status of coral reefs is different. The lagoons are formed by the upward growth of coral reefs to meet with material eroded from the reef and the island. They became refuges for marine life, offering protection against waves and storms.
Largest Again, the nutrients are recycled, and not as they are lost in the open ocean. In coral reefs and lagoons, the producers are phytoplankton, and marine worms, algae, coralline algae, especially types of small algae called turf, spending their nutrients for the corals. Phytoplankton eaten by fish and crustaceans, which also pass nutrients along the food chain. Recycling so that fewer nutrients are needed overall to support the community.
Coral Harbour many symbiotic organisms. In particular, there is a remarkable symbiosis between coral and algae, microscopic single cell known as a dinoflagellate zooxanthellae. The fact endosymbiotic zooxanthellae with coral polyp, which is itself lives in the polyp tissue. There, it absorbs solar energy with special pigments, using photosynthesis to provide the polyp with organic nutrients as glucose, glycerol, and amino acids. Zooxanthellae can provide up to 90% of energy needs of coral. In return, as an example mutualism, the coral provides the zooxanthellae, on average one million per cubic centimeter of coral, with a relatively safe place to live and a steady supply carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis.
The corals are nocturnal eaters. Here in the dark, coral polyps have extended their tentacles to feed on zooplankton
The color of coral depends on the type they host zooxanthellae
Corals also absorb nutrients, including nitrogen and phosphorus, directly from the water. Many corals expand their tentacles at night to catch zooplankton that brush when the water is agitated. Zooplankton provides the polyp with nitrogen, and the actions of the nitrogen polyps with zooxanthellae, which also require this element. Pigments different species of coral zooxanthellae provide their different colors. Coral loses its zooxanthellae becomes white and is said to be bleached, a condition which, unless corrected may lead to the death of coral.
A 2001 paper reported that the sponges are another key to explain the paradox of Darwin. These sponges live in crevices of coral reefs. They are efficient filter feeders, and in the Red Sea they consume about sixty percent of phytoplankton by drifts. The sponges absorb nutrients phytoplankton are then excreted in a form, the coral can use.
Researchers in 2002 explained why coral thrives best in troubled waters. They found the surface roughness of coral is the key. Normally there is a boundary layer of a still water around a submerged object, which acts as a barrier. But when the waves break on the very rough coral boundary layer is disturbed allowing access to the coral and few nutrients that are there. The researchers say that the turbulent water promotes growth Reef faster and much branching. Although ecosysemss reefs are great for recycling, with waste of a species to become a food other researchers also say that without the gains nutritional rough surfaces of coral, even more efficient recycling would leave corals who want to nutrients.
In 2004, another agency symbiotic bacteria called cyanobacteria, was found to provide nitrate soluble to the reef by nitrogen fixation.
Coral reefs are often dependent on other habitats such as seagrasses and mangroves in the vicinity for the supply of nutrients. seaweed and mangroves supply and dead animals that are rich in nitrogen and also serve to feed fish and animals of the reef by providing wood and vegetation. Reefs in turn protect the mangroves and seagrass beds from waves and produce sediment to mangroves and seagrass to root in.
Zones
Coral reef ecosystems provide a number of character distinctive areas that represent different types of habitats for fish and invertebrates. Usually, three main zones are recognized: the reef before (the outermost part of the reef and deeper), reef crest (zone shallower and closer to the ocean waves break), and the back reef (behind the reef crest and closer to the coast, with its calm waters protected) is also often mentioned that reef lagoon.
The three areas are physically and ecologically interconnected to some extent with the life of the reefs and ocean processes large opportunities for exchange of ocean water, sediment, nutrients, and marine life from each other.
Thus, they should normally be considered as integral elements of the ecosystem of coral reefs, each playing a role in supporting assemblies abundant and diverse fish that characterize coral reefs.
Most coral reefs are in shallow waters less than fifty meters. Some are on tropical continental shelves where cool, nutrient rich upwelling does not occur, as the Great Barrier Reef. Others are in the depths of the ocean surrounding the islands and atolls that, as the Maldives. The reefs surrounding islands form when islands disappear in the ocean, and the atolls are formed when an island in the subsidies below the surface of the sea
Moyle and Cech are six major areas, While most reefs have only some areas.
The water in the surface area of the reef is often agitated. This diagram represents a reef on a continental shelf. The waves of water left on the ground travel outside the reefs until they meet the slope of coral reefs or before. Then, the waves pass over the shallow reef crest. When a wave enters shallow water, the shoals, which is, it slows and the wave height increases.
The surface of the reef is the shallowest part of the reef. It is subject to the constant rise and the waves rise and falling tides. When the waves in shallow water areas to spend, they stand, as shown in the diagram at right. This means that the water in the surface area the reef is often agitated. These are the precise conditions under which the growth of coral. Lack of depth means that there is plenty of light for photosynthesis, and agitated the water promotes the ability of coral to feed on plankton. However other organisms such as fish and invertebrates should be able to withstand rugged conditions to thrive in this area.
The gross floor reef is the bottom of the sea around a shallow reef. This field applies to the reefs on the continental shelves. Tropical reefs around islands and atolls down sharply at great depths, and not a floor outside the reefs. Usually sand, soil outside the reefs often supports seagrasses that are important feeding areas of reef fish.
The reef is, for its first 50 meters, a habitat for many reef fish that are shelter on the cliff and plankton in the water nearby. The landing zone is mainly applicable to the reefs that surround oceanic islands and atolls.
The face is the area above the floor coral reef or the reef. "It is generally the richest habitat for fish and invertebrates. His growths complex calcareous algae reefs and provide countless cracks and crevices for protection and invertebrate epiphytes abundant and algae are a significant source of food. "
The reef sand flat bottom may be behind the main reef, containing pieces Reef. "The reef may be a protection zone on the edge of a lagoon, or it may be a flat, rocky area between the reef and the shore. In the first case, the number of fish species living in the region is often the highest in the reef area. "
The lagoon reef "of many coral reefs completely encircle an area, which the creation of a lagoon in calm waters that usually contains small Corrected reef. "
However, the topography "of coral reefs is in constant evolution. Each reef is composed of irregular patches of algae, sessile invertebrates, and bare sand rock. The size, shape and relative abundance of these spots varies from year to year in response to various factors that promote a type of patch over another. Coral growth, for example, produces changes in the fine structure constant reefs. On a larger scale, Tropical storms can knock out much of the reefs and rocky areas due to sand movement. "(Connell 1978)
Biodiversity
Tube sponges attracting fish cardinal, GlassFish and napoleons
Reefs are also home to a wide variety of other organisms, including fish, birds, sea sponges, cnidarians (including certain types of corals and jellyfish), worms, crustaceans (including prawns, shrimp Cleaners, lobsters and crabs), molluscs (including cephalopods), echinoderms (starfish, including sea urchins and sea cucumbers), ascidians, sea turtles and sea snakes Apart from man, mammals are rare on coral reefs, with visiting cetaceans such as dolphins being the main exception. Some of these varied species feed directly on corals, while others feed on algae on the reef and participate in complex food webs.
Researchers have found evidence of the dominance of algae in areas of healthy coral reefs. In Polls throughout the mostly uninhabited islands in the Pacific United States, the algae live in a large percentage of surveyed coral locations. The population of algae consists of turf algae, coralline algae, and macroalgae.
Fish
Main article: Coral reef fish
Coral reefs are home a wide variety of tropical fish and coral can be distinguished. These include:
adapted fish roe (as Labridae and parrots) These types of fish feed, or on small animals that live near coral, algae, corals or on himself. The fish feed on small animals are cleaner fish (these fish feed between the jaws of larger predatory fish), fish balls and Balistidae (these urchins eat), while the consumption of fish with seaweed include Pomacentridae (). Serranidae grow algae by eliminating creatures feed on it (such as sea urchins), and they remove the inedible algae. The fish that eat coral and parrotfish include butterfly.
fish swim near the reef. These include predatory fish such as pompanos, grouper, mackerel, some types of sharks, Epinephelus marginatus, barracuda, snappers, …) They also include herbivorous fish and feeding on plankton. Eating Fish herbaria include mackerel, snapper, Pagellus, Conodon … Eat fish plankton include Caesio, manta ray, chromis, Holocentridae, Pterapogon kauderni …
Organizations can cover every square inch of reef coral
Generally, fish that swim in the coral reefs are as colorful as the reef itself. Examples are parrots beautiful angels, damsels, Pomacanthus Paru, Clinidae and butterfly. At night, a change of color less intense. Besides colorful fish corresponding to their environment, other fish (eg, fish predators and herbivores such as hectoris Lampanyctodes, Holocentridae, Pterapogon kauderni, …) as well as aquatic animals (Comatulida, Crinoidea, Ophiuroidea, …) emerge and become active in other remains.
Other groups of fish found on coral reefs are groupers, grunts and wrasses. More than 4,000 species of fish inhabit the coral reefs. It has been suggested that the species of fish that inhabit the reefs reefs are able to coexist in such large numbers, because any free living space is inhabited by planktonic larvae of fish as soon as he is in what called "a lottery for living space.
Seabirds
Coral reef systems are an important habitat for bird species sea, some endangered. For example, Midway Atoll supports nearly three million seabirds, including two thirds (1.5 million euros) World Economic Laysan albatross population, and one third of the world population of Black-footed Albatross. Each species of seabirds have specific sites on the atoll where they nest. In total, 17 species of seabirds live on Midway. The short-tailed albatross is the most rare with fewer than 2,200 survivors after overhunting of feathers in the late nineteenth century.
Invertebrates
Invertebrates have their part in the chain Food reef. For example, sea urchins, sea cucumbers Dotidae and eat algae. Some species of sea urchins, Diadema antillarum like, can play a role central in preventing excess algal reefs. Hawksbill turtle, Nudibranchia and sea anemones eat sponges.
A number of invertebrates, cryptofauna collectively, inhabit the coral skeletal substrate itself, either boring into the skeleton (through the process of bioerosion) or living in pre-existing voids and crevices. Those animals boring into the rock are sponges, bivalve molluscs, and sipunculans. Those who settle on the reef include many other species, particularly crustaceans and polychaetes.
Other
Sea snakes feed exclusively on fish and their eggs. Many birds feed on tropical reef fish, such as herons, gannets, pelicans and crazy. Some terrestrial reptiles database may be associated with coral intermittently as monitor lizards, snakes on marine crocodile and semi-aquatic as Laticauda colubrina.
Soft Coral reefs cups, sponges and ascidians
Crown tipped coral fungus
coral snake eastern
Bands coral shrimp
Reef Caribbean squid
clams
Green Turtle
reef fish live in shoals
Economic value
Coral reefs provide services ecosystem for tourism, fisheries and coastal protection. The overall economic value of coral reefs has been estimated at 30 billion dollars. Coral reefs protect shorelines by absorbing wave energy, and many smaller islands would not exist without their coral to protect them. According to WWF, the economic cost over 25 years of the destruction of one kilometer of coral reef is between $ 137,000 and $ 1,200,000. Approximately 6 million tonnes of fish are caught each year in the coral reefs. Well-managed coral reefs have an annual 15 tons of seafood per square kilometer on average. fisheries in Southeast Asia coral reef only return $ 2.4 billion annually from fruit sea
Questions
Island with fringing reef of Yap, Micronesia. Coral reefs are dying around the world.
Coral reefs dying worldwide. Human activity may represent the greatest threat to coral reefs. In particular, coral mining, pollution (organic and non-organic), overfishing, blast fishing and digging canals and access to the islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems. Coral reefs face the high risk of pollution, disease, destructive fishing practices and the warming of oceans. "To find answers to these problems, researchers studying the different factors that impact the reefs. The list of factors is long, including the ocean role as sinks of carbon dioxide, atmospheric changes, ultraviolet light, ocean acidification, biological virus, impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far flung reefs, pollution, algal blooms and others. Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas.
Southeast Asia coral reefs are threatened by harmful fishing practices (such as cyanide and blast fishing), overfishing, sedimentation, pollution and bleaching. A variety of activities, including education, regulation and establishment of marine protected areas are under way to protect these reefs.
Indonesia, home to one third of corals world total and a quarter of its fish species, nearly 33,000 square miles (85,000 km2). coral reefs of Indonesia are located in the heart of the Triangle Reef and were victims of destructive fishing, unregulated tourism, and bleaching due to climate change. The data from 414 stations Reef Monitoring in 2000 showed that only 6% are in excellent condition, while 24% are in good condition, and about 70% are in poor condition to a state fair (2003 Johns Hopkins University).
In 2007, Reef Check, the largest organization of global reef conservation, said that only 5% of Philippines 27,000 km ² of coral reefs are in "excellent condition": Tubbataha Reef, Marine Park in Palawan, Apo Island in Negros Oriental, Apo Reef in Puerto Galera, Mindoro, and Verde Island Passage off Batangas. Coral reefs in the Philippines is the second largest in Asia.
Estimates General show about 10% of the world's reefs are already dead. It is estimated that approximately 60% of the world's reefs are at risk due to destructive human activities linked. The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in South Asia, where 80% of reefs are threatened.
Fishing practices
See also: Overfishing and environmental effects of fishing
Many valuable species of fish live around coral reefs. Shark and reef fish are fished extensively for fish markets. Seahorses and sea cucumbers are harvested the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Lobsters are sought for the tourism industry, and shrimp for export.
Overfishing, particularly overfishing selective, may disrupt coral ecosystems by encouraging excessive growth of coral predators. The predators that feed living coral, as the crown of thorns starfish-, corallivores are called. Coral reefs are built from coral stone, which have evolved with large quantities of wax, cetyl palmitate in their tissues. Most predators find this indigestible wax. The crown of thorns Starfish is a large (up to one meter) of sea stars with long spikes protected venomous. It has an enzyme system which dissolves the wax hard corals, and allows the starfish to feed on live coral. Normally, the starfish are kept under control by Triton giant sea snail. However, the giant triton is prized for its shell, and has been severely overfished. Consequently, crown of thorns starfish populations can explode without checking periodically, damaging coral reefs.
The overfished Triton giant eats the crown of thorns starfish
The crown of thorns starfish feeds on coral
Although some species aquarium fish can reproduce in aquariums (like Pomacentridae), most (95%) are collected from coral reefs. operation intense, especially in the South-East Asia (including Indonesia and the Philippines), damage the reefs. This situation is aggravated by fishing practices destructive, such as cyanide and blast fishing. Most (8090%) of aquarium fish from the Philippines are caught with cyanide sodium. This toxic chemical is dissolved in seawater and published in the fish sanctuaries. It narcotizes fish, which are then easily caught. But most fish caught in the matrix of cyanide few months later from liver damage. In addition, non-marketable species die on the field. Vector major cyanide fishing is poverty in fishing communities. In regions like the Philippines where cyanide is used regularly, the percentage of population living below the poverty line is 40%. In these developing countries, a fisherman might resort to such practices to protect his family from starvation.
Dynamite fishing is another destructive method of collecting fish. Sticks of dynamite, grenades, explosives or homemade are all simply thrown into the water. This fishing method kills the fish in the main firing zone, and many non-edible and / or reef animals unwanted. The explosion also kills the corals in the region, thereby eliminating the very structure of the reef, destroying habitat for fish and other animals important to the maintenance of a healthy reef. Other destructive fishing methods, such as muroami and kayaks, to kill all the fish in some areas, causing havoc on the ecosystem of the reef.
Hughes et al. (2003), writes that "the human population increased and improved storage and transport systems, the magnitude of human impacts on reefs has grown exponentially. For example, fish markets and other natural resources have become global, supplying demand for reef resources. "
Pollution
Main article: Marine pollution
This image of an algae bloom on the south coast of England, but not in an area of coral, which shows a proliferation can resemble a system of satellite remote sensing
Runoff caused by farming and construction of roads, buildings, ports, channels and ports, may carry soil loaded with carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and minerals. This water-rich elements nutrients can cause algae and phytoplankton fleshy grow in coastal areas, known as algal blooms, which have the potential create hypoxic conditions using all available oxygen. Some algae are toxic, and the two plants to reduce levels of light and oxygen, killing marine organisms such as fish and corals. Adding too many nutrients such as phosphates and nitrates, a process known as eutrophication, is very damaging to the reefs. High nitrate levels are toxic to corals, while phosphates slow the growth of coral skeleton.
The reefs near human populations may be faced with local stresses, including poor quality water sources land pollution. Copper, a common industrial pollutant has been shown to interfere with the life history and development of polyps corals. Poor water quality has also been shown to encourage the spread of infectious diseases among corals.
Graph dust Barbados
In addition to land runoff, and more sand is blown into other regions. The Saharan dust traveling in the southern outskirts the subtropical ridge moves into the Caribbean and Florida during the warm season as the ridge builds and moves northward across the Atlantic subtropical. Dust can also be attributed to an overall transport of Gobi and Taklamakan throughout Korea, Japan and the Pacific Hawaiian Islands to the north. Since 1970, outbreaks have worsened due to dust during periods of drought in Africa. There is a great variability in the transport of dust in the Caribbean and Florida, from year to year, but the flow is greater during the positive phases the North Atlantic Oscillation. The USGS links the events of the dust to a decline in the health of coral reefs in the Caribbean and Florida, mainly since the 1970s. Studies have shown that corals can integrate the dust in their skeletons identified dust from the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa in Indonesia in the annular bands of builders Montastraea annularis coral reefs of the reef unit Florida.
Climate change
See also: Coral bleaching
Unbleached and bleached coral
Any rise in sea level due to the change climate would ask corals growing faster forward. In addition, changes in water temperature can be very disruptive to coral. This was seen during 1998 and 2004 El Nio weather phenomenon, in which the surface temperatures of the sea has risen well above normal, money or kill many coral reefs. high sea surface temperatures (SSTs) coupled with high irradiance (intensity devices), causes a loss of zooxanthellae, a symbiotic algae, dinoflagellates and pigmentation in corals causing coral bleaching. Zooxanthellae provides up to 90% of energy to the host coral. Reefs can often recover from bleaching if they are in good health begin and water temperatures cool. However, the recovery may be possible if CO2 levels rise to 500 ppm, because it may not be enough carbonate ions. See Hoegh-Guldberg 1999 for more information.
Warming could also be the basis of a new emerging problem: the increase of coral diseases. Warming, considered the main cause of coral bleaching weakens corals. In their weakness, the Coral is far more prone to diseases, including black band disease, white band disease, skeletal band erosion. If global temperatures increase 2 ° C, the coral may not be able to adapt quickly enough physiological or genetic. It has been estimated that, to counter the threat the acidification of the oceans through global warming, a reduction of up to 40% of current emissions is necessary, and until 95% by 2050. This requires reductions in emissions greater than the currently proposed cuts for those dates by the EU.
Acidification Oceans
Main article: Ocean acidification
Bamboo coral is a harbinger of early Ocean Acidification
Another problem related to climate change is the acidification of the oceans. Ocean acidification results dioxide growth atmospheric carbon, which increases the amount of carbon dioxide dissolved in the oceans. The dissolved carbon dioxide gas reacts with water to form acid carbon and thus acidifies the ocean. This decrease in pH of ocean surface is another long-term concern for the survival of coral reefs.
surface ocean pH is estimated to have declined by about 8.25 to 8.14 since the beginning of the industrial era, and it is estimated it will require a 0.30.4 additional units by 2100 as the ocean absorbs more anthropogenic carbon dioxide. Normally, the conditions production of calcium carbonate are stable in surface waters since the carbonate ion concentration is supersaturating. However, as ocean pH decreases, the higher the concentration of this ion, and when carbonate becomes under-saturated, the structures of calcium carbonate are vulnerable to splitting. Research has already found that corals experience reduced calcification or enhanced dissolution when exposed to CO2.
Bamboo coral is deep water corals that produces growth rings like a tree. The pattern of growth rings how growth rates change as profound change Sea state over time, and can also save the changes due to ocean acidification. This coral is particularly long. specimens corals as old as 4000 years have given scientists "4000 years worth of information on what happened in the interior deep ocean.
Other issues
Worn Coral
In the past 20 years, once seagrassbeds prolific mangrove forests, which absorb massive amounts of nutrients and sediment, have been destroyed. Both the loss of wetlands, and mangrove habitats seagrassbeds affect water quality of coastal reefs.
Coral mining is another threat. The two small harvest by villagers and industrial by large-scale mining companies are serious threats. Mining is usually done to produce building materials which Rated up to 50% cheaper than other rocks, such as quarries. The rocks are crushed and mixed with other materials, as the cement to make concrete. Ancient coral used for construction is known as a soft coral. Building directly on the reef also has serious change the flow of water and the tides that bring nutrients to the reef. The overriding reason for the construction of reefs is simply the lack of space.
Boats and ships need access points in the bays and islands to load and unload goods and people. To do this, parts of reefs are often chopped away to clear a path. While this may seem a minor reef destruction, the consequences negative may include altered the flow of water and changed the structure of tidal cause a shift in the supply of reef nutrients, sometimes destroying a large part of the reef. Fishing vessels and other large vessels during grounding on a reef. Two types of damage may result. collision damage occurs when a reef coral is crushed and divided by the hull of a ship into multiple fragments. Scarring occurs when boat propellers pull the live coral and exposing the skeleton. The physical damage can be noticed that the striations in reefs. Docking also causes damage that can be reduced by using mooring buoys.
Endangered Species
Standard Global registration of threatened species is the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. This list is based conservation priorities Shipping worldwide. A species is classified as threatened if it is considered critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable. Other categories are near threatened and data deficient. In 2008, the IUCN has assessed all known coral reef-building species as follows
Group
Species
Threatened
Near Threatened
Insufficient Data
Reef-building corals
845
27%
20%
17%
The Coral Triangle (Indo-Malay Archipelago, Philippines) region has the highest number of reef-building coral in the category of endangered species and more diversity of species of corals. The loss of coral reef ecosystems will have devastating effects on many marine species, and people who depend on reefs for their livelihood.
Protected areas
Main article: protection of coral reefs
Coral reefs and fish in Papua New Guinea
Marine protected areas (MPAs) have become increasingly important for management of reefs. AMP in South Asia and around the world trying to promote responsible fisheries management and habitat protection. Just as national parks and refuges of life Wild, MPAs prohibit extraction potentially harmful activities. The objectives of the GPA are both social and biological, including restoration of coral, aesthetics, and increased protection of biodiversity, and economic benefits. Conflicts around MPAs involve lack of participation, clashing views and perceptions of effectiveness and financing.
Biosphere reserves are protected areas that others can protect the reefs. In addition, marine parks, as well as World Heritage sites can protect the reefs. World Heritage designation may also play essential. For example, the Chagos Archipelago, Sian Ka'an, the Great Barrier Reef, Henderson Island, the Galapagos Islands, Belize Barrier Reef and Palau have been designated as protected by the designation as a World Heritage Site.
In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, and is the subject of much legislation, including a plan of action for biodiversity.
Islanders Ahus, Manus Province, Papua New Guinea, have followed a generations-old practice of limiting fishing in the six areas of their reef lagoon. Their cultural traditions allow angling, but no net and spear fishing. The result is that Two of the biomass and size of individual fish are much larger in these areas than in places where fishing is free.
remediation technologies
Main article: Restoration of coral reefs
the current low voltage applied across the seawater crystallize dissolved minerals on steel structures. The resultant white carbonate (aragonite) is the same mineral that makes natural coral reefs. Corals colonize quickly and grow at an accelerated pace of these structures coated. Electric currents also accelerate the formation and growth both chemical limestone rock and the skeletons of corals and other organisms bearings. The vicinity of the anode and the cathode provides an environment of high pH which inhibits the growth of filamentous algae and fleshy, which compete with corals for space. The growth rate increased continuously from the stop mineral accretion process.
During the accumulation of minerals, corals settled display a higher growth rate and size and density, but after the process is complete, the growth rate and density back to levels that are comparable to more and more naturally corallites, and are the same size or slightly smaller.
In large restoration projects, according to the type of coral, the placement of hermatypic propagated to substrate Coral is often made with metal pins, glue or Milliput. Needle and thread can also attach a hermatypic coral-substrate. The concrete has been used to restore much of the coral reef broken. Finally, special structures such as reef balls can be placed in corals provide a basis for further growth.
Organizations
Organizations that are currently exercising coral reefs and atoll restoration projects using methods simple multiplication of plants:
Reef Sandy
Counterpart
Coral Reef Task Force U.S. (GARC)
National Coral Reef Institute (NCRI)
U.S. Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA): Conservation of coral reefs
National Center for Research on coral reefs (NCORE)
Reef Ball
South Florida Coral Reef Initiative (SEFCRI)
Foundation for the Peoples of the South Pacific
WorldFishCenter: promotion sustainable mariculture techniques of reef organisms grow Tridacnidae
Coral Restoration Foundation (CRF): Adopt a Coral
Organizations that promote interest, provide knowledge bases on the survival of coral reefs, and promote activities to protect and restore coral reefs:
Society Australian coral reefs
Biosphere Foundation
Chagos Conservation Trust
Conservation Society of Pohnpei
Coral Reef Care
Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL)
Coral Reef Research and Capacity Building for Management
Coral Triangle Initiative
Cousteau Society
Crusoe Reef Society
CEDAM International
Earthwatch
Environmental Defense Fund
Environment Solutions International
Friends of the Saba Marine Park
Global Coral Reef Alliance (GCRA)
Network World Coral Reef Monitoring
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
Alliance ICRAN Mesoamerican Reef
International Marinelife Alliance
International Society for the study of coral reefs
Intercoast Network
Kosrae Conservation and Safety Organization
Conservation Group navy
Marine Conservation Society
Initiative Mesoamerican Reef Tourism (Marti)
NSF Moorea Coral Reef Long Term Ecological Research Site
Conservation
Ocean Voice International
PADI
Planetary Coral Reef Foundation
Practical Action
Project Reefkeeper
ReefBase
Reef Check
Reef Relief
Reefwatch
Seacology
SECOR
Singapore Underwater Federation
Society for Andaman and Nicobar Ecology
Tubbataha Foundation
Wildlife Conservation International
WWF
The reefs in the past
Reef Reef
Throughout the history of the Earth, a few thousand years after hard skeletons have been developed by marine organisms, there was almost always the reefs. Development times have been up in the Middle Cambrian (513-501 Ma), Devonian (416-359 Ma) and Carboniferous (359-299 Ma), due to Order Rugosa corals off, and Cretaceous (100-65 Ma) and all the Neogene (23 Ma – present), because corals Scleractinia Order.
Not all reefs in the past have been formed by corals: in the early Cambrian (542-513 Ma) resulted from algae archaeocyathid limestone (small animals conical, probably related to sponges) and late Cretaceous (100-65 Ma), where there was also reef formed by a group called rudist bivalves, one valve formed the main conical structure and the other, much smaller valve acted like a cork.
See also
Ecology portal
Marine Biology
List of environmental issues
Notes
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